Chinese schools of thought and their continuing influence

Confucianism

Representative figures:

Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi

Core ideas: Benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), trustworthiness (xin).

Explanation:

Ren emphasizes harmonious relationships among people. Yi and li serve to maintain social order. Zhi and xin advocate for rational understanding and honest character.

To this day, these ideas remain widely recognized and practiced moral principles among the Chinese people.

Confucius (551-479 BC) founded Confucianism, which was spread by Mencius (372-289 BC) and Xunzi (313-238 BC), becoming a key source of intellectual freedom.

Mencius promoted benevolent governance and the idea that rulers should treat their people with kindness, a progressive concept adopted by many Chinese dynasties.

Xunzi combined Confucian propriety with Legalist law, creating the ancient Chinese tradition of using both — an innovation on the original teachings of Confucius.

Legalism

Representative figure: Han Fei

Core idea: Ruling the country by law.

Explanation:

Legalism was the school of thought among philosophers before the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) that placed the greatest emphasis on law, developing a complete set of theories and methods for its application.

Legalists regarded law as a tool for strengthening social governance, making it an effective means to maintain social order.

Han Fei (280-233 BC) advocated integrating three key elements: law (fa), methods (shu), and authority (shi). He insisted that laws should be transparent, clear and specific. Rulers must possess absolute authority to ensure that laws and decrees can be effectively enforced.

Legalism exerted a profound influence on state politics, culture and morality. It has also provided important reference points for the birth and development of contemporary Chinese law.

Taoism

Representative figures:

Laozi, Zhuangzi

Core idea: The Way follows what is natural.

Explanation:

Taoism advocates following the natural laws of the universe and promotes harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature. It contains profound wisdom about the natural world and the philosophy of human life, deeply influencing traditional Chinese aesthetics and ways of living.

Represented by Laozi (traditionally dated to the 6th-5th century BC) and Zhuangzi (369-286 BC), Taoism explores the relationships among nature, society and human life, emphasizing compliance with objective laws rather than forced or artificial intervention.

The Taoist concepts of "the Way follows what is natural" and "governing through non-action" should not be misunderstood as passive withdrawal from the world. Rather, they represent a dialectical unity between transcending the world and engaging with it.

Mohism

Representative figure: Mozi

Core ideas: Universal love and opposition to war.

Explanation:

Mohism advocates opposing war and pursuing peace. It calls for loving all people equally, regardless of family ties, social status or wealth. Mohists believe that the most capable and virtuous individuals should be chosen to govern the state. They oppose extravagance and waste, promote diligence and frugality, and emphasize practical action and public welfare. These ideas reflect a people-oriented philosophy and a deep commitment to peace.

Mozi (traditionally dated to the 5th-4th century BC) traveled tirelessly among the warring states to promote his anti-war doctrine. On one notable occasion, he walked for 10 days and nights to successfully prevent a war between two states.

Mozi also had deep knowledge of physics, mathematics and handicraft manufacturing. Mohist texts describe a pinhole imaging experiment demonstrating that light travels in straight lines.

The School of the Military

Representative figures:

Sun Wu (also known as Sun Tzu),

Sun Bin

Core ideas: Prudence in warfare, putting people first, and subduing the enemy without fighting.

Explanation:

The school of thought focuses on military theory and practice. It represents the essence of ancient Chinese military thought, summarizing the experiences of warfare and military administration from that time.

Sayings such as "Know the enemy and know yourself, and you will never be defeated in 100 battles" reflect its emphasis on strategy, methods and tactics, combining practical military wisdom with rich dialectical philosophy.

Today, when facing problems in life, study or work, many Chinese people still draw inspiration from this school of thought.

The School of the Military does not glorify war. Instead, it advocates prudence and justice in warfare, supporting only righteous wars while opposing unjust aggression.