Confucianism tends to compare men's virtues with natural scenery. Plants such as bamboo, pine, plum, orchid, chrysanthemum, and lotus, as well as spectacular mountains and rocks, were always considered to symbolize certain virtues. Therefore, one of the most common ways to make a Chinese garden more elegant is to incorporate plants, rocks, and garden buildings together. Take bamboo for instance. As bamboo does not die in the winter but remains upright and evergreen even in very cold days, it has come to be known as a sign meaning perseverance and long friendship.

 Taoism and Chinese Garden

Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, is one of the three great philosophies in ancient China. Tao (pronounced "Dow") can be roughly translated into English as path, or the way. It is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced.

Tao is the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life. It "refers to a power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female.)"

On one hand, garden design in China has been to a large extent influenced by the Daoist principles of wanting to be alone, of humbleness, and the eradication of desire.

On the other hand, Taoism worships nature. It holds that supernatural beings do exist. Accordingly, gardens with a fairyland as the design theme emerged. It was recorded that Shanglin Garden, built for the first emperor of theQin Dynasty(221-206BC), had already employed the layout of "one lake, three hills" -- a lake surrounded by hills. Since then the layout of "one lake, three hills" was widely used in designing gardens for the royal family, and later for ordinary people.

For instance, there used to be a "Lesser Square Kettle Garden" inYangzhou, while there is a "LesserPenglai" in Liu Garden in Suzhou and "Lesser Yinzhou" in theWest LakeinHangzhou. (Square Kettle Garden, Penglai, and Yinzhou are all imaginary places inhabited by the immortal.)

 The Chan Sect of Buddhism and Chinese Garden

Incorporating original thoughts of Indian Buddhism with Chinese thoughts about life, the Chan Sect is regarded as a localized religion in China. It holds that intuition, experience, or meditation, rather than logical analysis, is the proper and effective way to understand the world. Human beings and the universe should co-exist in union.