The Spring and Autumn andWarringStatesperiods (770-221BC), though marked by disunity and civil strife, witnessed an unprecedented era of cultural prosperity. To effect the economic, military, and cultural developments, the regional lords needed ever-increasing numbers of skilled, literate officials and teachers, the recruitment of whom was based on merit. Also during this time, commerce was stimulated with the introduction of coinage and technological improvements. Iron came into general use, making possible not only the forging of weapons of war but also the manufacture of farm implements. Public works on a grand scale -- such as flood control, irrigation projects, and canal digging -- were executed.
So many different philosophies developed during the late Spring and Autumn and early Warring States periods that the era is often known as that of theHundred Schools of Thought. From the Hundred Schools of Thought came many of the great classical writings on which Chinese practices were to be based for the next two and onehalf millennia. Many of the thinkers were itinerant intellectuals who, besides teaching their disciples, were employed as advisers to one or another of the various state rulers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy.
The body of thought that had the most enduring effect on subsequent Chinese life was that of theSchool of Literati(Ru), often called the Confucian school in the West. The written legacy of theSchoolofLiteratiis embodied in theConfucian Classics, which were to become the basis for the order of traditional society. Confucius (551-479BC), also called Kong Zi, attempted to add a moral dimension to many accepted ideas, beliefs, and social categories such as:Shih(gentleman),Li(ritual); and his main moral concepts include:Ren (benevolence),Li (guidelines for proper conduct), andDe(virtue). A hallmark of Confucius' thought is hisemphasis on education and study. His teachings, preserved in theAnalects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education.
Mencius (372-289BC), or Meng Zi, was a Confucian disciple who made major contributions to the humanism of Confucian thought. Mencius declared that man was by nature good. He expostulated the idea that a ruler could not govern without the people's tacit consent and that the penalty for unpopular, despotic rule was the loss of the "mandate of heaven". Mencius was the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucian thought.
Diametrically opposed to Mencius, was the interpretation of Xun Zi (ca.300-237BC), another Confucian follower. Xun Zi preached that man is innately selfish and evil and that goodness is attainable only through education and conduct befitting one's status. He also argued that the best government is one based on authoritarian control, not ethical or moral persuasion.
Xun Zi's unsentimental and authoritarian inclinations were developed into the doctrine mbodied in theSchoolofLaw(Fa), orLegalism. The doctrine was formulated by Han Feizi of the late Warring States Period (475-221BC), who maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish and therefore the only way to preserve the social order was to impose discipline from above and to enforce laws strictly. Legalism became the philosophic basis for the imperial form of government.
In addition, Taoism (or Daoism), the second most important stream of Chinese thought, also developed during the Zhou Period (11thcentury-256BC). Its formulation is attributed to the legendary sage Lao Zi (Old Master), said to predate Confucius. The focus of Taoism is the individual in nature rather than the individual in society. It holds that the goal of life for each individual is to find one's own personal adjustment to the rhythm of the natural (and supernatural) world, to followDao(the Way) of the universe.
Still another school of thought was based on the doctrine of Mo Zi (470-391 BC), or Mo Di. Mo Zi believed that "all men are equal before God" and that mankind should follow heaven by practicing universal love. Advocating that all action must be utilitarian, Mo Zi condemned the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music. He regarded warfare as wasteful and advocated pacificism. Mo Zi also believed that unity of thought and action was necessary to achieve social goals. Although Moism failed to establish itself as a major school of thought, its views are said to be "strongly echoed" in Legalist thought.
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