A major aspect of Song Emperor Huizong’s birthday celebrations was a soccer match between royal teams. Two referees would certainly have been warranted on these occasions, as the losing team faced flogging and having their faces smothered in yellow and white powder. Soccer matches were eventually institutionalized and incorporated into festive occasions. They commenced after all in attendance had drunk their sixth cup of wine. Being played in the spirit of performance rather than competition, they were less ferocious than Emperor Huizong’s birthday matches.

It was also during the Song Dynasty that football clubs, known as Yuan Societies, first appeared in China. Their players were called Yuan mates, and had the hypothetical right to transfer to other clubs. Leaving a Yuan Society, however, was no easy matter. Yuan mates seeking to play elsewhere were required to give detailed information about their coaches and previous career experience and also to pass rigorous tests of foot balling skill. One such rite of passage was keeping the ball in the air for 100 kicks off either foot.

Cuju maintained its popularity right through the succeeding Yuan (1279-1368) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, but declined during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The rulers of China’s last imperial dynasty were of the Manchu ethnicity. They espoused archery and wrestling, preferring to inhibit team sports that could be a front for subversive groups.

 

Beat the Ball

Hitting, as well as kicking, a ball was also a popular pastime in ancient China. In the Tang Dynasty it took the forms of maqiu (polo), a sport as popular as cuju during the Tang Dynasty, and buda (step hit) a game similar to hockey.

During the Song Dynasty buda became refined into the game known as chuiwan (hit ball). The main differences between chuiwan and buda were that the point of the former was to hit the ball into a hole rather than a goal, and competitiveness was based on indirect, as opposed to direct, confrontation. Hockey thus evolved into the earliest form of golf.

The heads of chuiwan clubs were made of wood and wrapped in ox sinew. They were fashioned for long- and short-distance shots. The shaft was made of hard yet flexible bamboo. The ball was slightly larger than an egg and made from knots of lumber, cattle horn or agate.

There were both individual and team chuiwan events. The distance between player and hole varied between a dozen to 20 meters. Contestants scored by getting the ball into the hole in three shots.

In 1282, the 19th year of Zhiyuan Reign of the Yuan Dynasty, Ning Zhi wrote a book on chuiwan called Wan Jing (The Book of Chuiwan). It gives a detailed account of the history of chuiwan, its general rules, and competition venues. Chuiwan is the obvious forerunner to today’s golf. The main difference between the two is that chuiwan was played one-handed.